Necromancy through the ages: how the art of communicating with the dead developed (36 photos)
Necromancy is something out of the ordinary for most people alive today. The art of bringing the dead back to life is often used in science fiction and mystical films. But ancient people did not neglect various fortune-telling. We tell you how necromancy appeared and how it developed over time. 
Sumerians 
First of all, you need to understand that necromancy is magical rituals to summon ghosts. And if many fortune-telling were done with an unknown result for the performer, then in the case of calling ghosts, the magician acted intentionally and aimed at the result.
The first mentions of professional necromancers date back to the second millennium BC in Sumerian-Akkadian sources. As a rule, they communicated with ghosts so that they would leave the living alone and find their own rest. 
The Sumerians in general were fearful guys: in their religion, ghosts were rather feared, but still their calls were frequent. For example, in the tales of Gilgamesh, the god Nergal brings his friend and comrade Enkidu out of the kingdom of the dead. And on some clay tablets that have come down to us, there are detailed instructions on how to summon a ghost. Some of the documents even contain warnings about which spirits should not be invoked. 
Of course, what is a ritual without the ingredients to summon spirits? For this, the Sumerians used quite classic things: smoke of juniper and sulfur, oil, honey, wine, good beer. But, on top of everything else, there were also things that were wild by modern standards. So, in many rituals it was necessary to use, for example, the droppings of a wild bull and bear, crushed partridges, the fat of a snake, lion and crab, and much more. One could also resort to the opportunity to talk with the dead. To do this, it was necessary to smear the eyes with a special ointment, which contained human and dog bones, wolf feces, spoiled fat, black dog pus and cedar resin. Perhaps, if you rub yourself like this, not only the dead will appear.
Türkiye 
Do not think that only the Sumerians dabbled in calling on the dead. For example, in the territory of modern Turkey, in the Gobekli Tepe temple complex, dating back to the tenth century BC, evidence of necromancy was found. 
Scientists believe that ancient people practiced air burial here: on one of the columns of the complex, images of headless bodies of people carried away by birds were found. Many remains of skulls were also found here. Among them there are also unusual finds: these skulls were suspended using special grooves and holes. Researchers think they were used to predict the future. And the future also belongs to the realm of necromancy. 
At approximately the same place, archaeologists also found human skulls, which were often specially decorated with plaster and various objects. It is still unknown what exact role they played in the life of the temple, but there is an assumption that these skulls could be original portraits of ancestors. 
True, this does not explain the relatively young age of the owners of these skulls, and even the fact that during the lifetime of the owners these skulls were specially deformed. Apparently, the emphasis was on the owner's appearance.
Israel 
On the territory of modern Israel, in Nahal Hemar, evidence of necromancy was also found. There, archaeologists unearthed limestone masks, along with which were stored several skulls modeled in plaster. Judging by the holes on the bones, these masks were attached to the skulls themselves. 
Probably, such amulets were made in order to scare away evil spirits that could live in those very skulls. Finds next to the masks indicate that if a living person put on these masks, then he could, as it were, reincarnate into the deceased, that is, become a guide to the world of the dead. 
In those days, it was believed that the dead protected the living: they were consulted and also asked for help in wealth and fertility.
Ancient Egypt 
It is no secret that the attitude towards the dead and the afterlife in Ancient Egypt was special. Their mummies and special funeral traditions still reach us.
True, necromancy there was special. During the era of the Old Kingdom (XXVII - XXIII centuries BC), the Egyptians believed that the power that a person possessed during life would go with him to the kingdom of the dead. Therefore, on the walls of many tombs of ancient nobles we can read about who this person was during his lifetime and what power he had. 
Later, in the era of the Middle Kingdom, a whole cult of the dead developed: if you presented them with generous gifts, then you could quite count on their patronage in the world of the living. And in the era of the New Kingdom, the cult of the royal dignitary Imhotep existed. He acted as the patron of all scribes and gave answers to questions, appearing to the petitioner in a dream. 
Pharaoh Amenhotep the First could also be asked questions. His statue was brought out to his subjects, and supposedly it acted as an oracle. He left his heir instructions about the afterlife, advice on governing the country, and even a prediction about the coming uprising. 
But most often, the ancient Egyptians were still interested in ordinary everyday life: how to recover, how to solve family problems, more luck and intercession. In addition, it was believed that “one’s own” deceased could help in the fight against another deceased. True, if suddenly the spirit did not cope well with its duties, they wrote angry letters and reproached them for poorly fulfilling their obligations under the special agreement. 
According to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, the dead were in constant contact with the living, and therefore it was not necessary to summon them. It was only necessary to constantly feed them with gifts and keep their tombs in order.
True, later sources, in particular the Leiden papyrus (Hellenistic Egypt), describe how to evoke a spirit using a vessel. It was possible to drive the spirit there, and he, in turn, would answer the questions of the living. There is a parallel here with King Solomon, who drove demons into a copper vessel and subjugated them.
Ancient Greece and Rome 
In Ancient Greece, black rams, sheep, calves and cows were especially revered. They, in particular, were sacrificed by Odysseus, who wanted to talk to the dead. And, by the way, this fragment of the Odyssey is considered to be the most ancient. 
In Ancient Greece, in principle, necromancy was not only carried away - it was most developed there. In addition, the word “necromancy” itself is of Greek origin.
Contacts with the dead were called nekiomancy, skiomancy or psychomancy - from the words corpse, shadow and soul.
In addition, in Greece it was easy to communicate with the dead in specially designated places. For this purpose, there are special temples near the caves, which were considered the entrances to the world of the dead. Often these caves (or sometimes lakes) emitted toxic fumes, and no birds lived there. 
Necromancy is also reflected in myths. The Corinthian tyrant Periander, for example, who killed his wife Melissa and then raped her body, called on her spirit to find out where she hid the treasure left for her to keep. Very family-like, isn't it? 
Melissa, despite her resentment, still pointed out the place, but only after generous gifts. Among these same gifts were rich clothes, which were given to Melissa with the help of noble ladies: they came to the king’s holiday, there they were stripped, and the clothes themselves were burned. So it goes.
It is also no secret that literature was very developed in the ancient state. And often writers liked to use creepy descriptions of rituals to make their work intense. This was the image of Erichto that Lucan created. She looked creepy, summoned the dead, swore at the gods and made wild sounds. 
In general, the attitude towards this art among the Greeks varies from author to author. Some people approve of conscription, others do not. In the same Horace, the witches Canidia and Sagana look terrible: disheveled, ungirdled, barefoot, and they even tear the lamb apart with their bare hands.
It is also interesting that in ancient Greek and Roman culture there were skulls that gave predictions. Even the head of Orpheus, which was thrown into the sea and then found off the coast of the island of Lesbos, prophesied from a crevice in the ground. There are other heads that bring predictions: the head of the wolf victim Publius, the hermaphrodite Polycritus killed by his own father, and many others. And they didn’t need any rituals, they said on their own.
But the heads could also be made specially. So, the king of Sparta Cleomenes consulted with the head of his friend. True, the tsar turned out to be a good friend: he promised to make this very adviser a co-ruler, but then killed him and kept his head so as not to break this oath. 
The Greeks also actively turned to the dead for help. Many of them asked the dead for everyday successes: strength, luck, winning in court, and so on. Special letters were even written to the dead on pieces of lead, marble, clay, mica, copper and much more.
Over time, even specialists appeared who, for a fee, helped compose these very letters to the dead. And the list of Greek practices for dealing with the dead is extremely extensive. Many rituals were further used in various practices of necromancy, including modern ones.
Judaism 
Surprisingly, the Jews, or Hebrews, also used the practice of necromancy. Although in the religion of the Jews there is an unambiguous ban on necromancy, which was then adopted by Christianity. But despite this, the same Bible describes the ritual of necromancy (Chapter 28 of the First Book of Kings). There, the sorceress from Endor, at the request of King Saul (who had previously expelled all magicians from the country), summons the spirit of the prophet Samuel to ask him about the impending war. The Spirit, in turn, says that Saul will soon die as punishment for not following the will of God, who previously did not give an answer in an acceptable way. 
Because of this passage of the Bible, at one time there were fierce disputes among Christians: why did the prophet appear on his own and could it be a demon, with the special permission of God? Indeed, in the first case, this would mean that the witch could control the prophet of God. And she, by the way, breaks the law and works witchcraft. And if it is a demon, it would confirm the holy texts that in fact all souls belong to God and cannot be summoned.
Christianity 
Patemurfiy
The Christian tradition inherited much from the Jewish one, but thanks to the works of the church fathers it also absorbed Greco-Roman elements. Here, relationships with the dead are built in a special way: on the one hand, necromancy is directly and unequivocally prohibited by the Bible, on the other, some deceased ascetics (saints) are perceived as intercessors, mediators between God and man, capable of conveying the petitioner’s prayer to God. Churches contain relics that believers believe have special power—holiness.
In the lives of some saints one can find episodes very similar to necromancy. For example, the Monk Macarius the Great revives a corpse with the help of prayer in order to establish the innocence of the alleged murderer. The spirit returns to the body, but answers questions from underground, while in its grave. The Monk Rufinus tells the story of the hermit Patermuthia, who temporarily revived a dead monk in order to find out whether he was satisfied with the way his funeral was prepared. Also, Patermufius, through a kiss and prayer, revives a brother in faith, to whom he did not have time to say goodbye. It is interesting that in this case the elder offers the deceased a choice - to die again or continue to live. 
Rev. Mark the Grave Digger also revives the dead. He received such strength from God, as he worked hard preparing places for the burial of monks (as evidenced by his nickname). It is important to understand that Christians do not identify what is described with necromancy as part of the forbidden art of magic, but attribute such episodes to miracles - outstanding unusual events occurring from God. Miracles are contrasted with rituals performed out of self-interest, vanity and, accordingly, going against God. Mention of such necromancy can be seen in the New Testament (Acts 8:9–24). A contemporary of the apostles, Simon the Magus, tries to resurrect the widow’s son, who is being carried to the funeral site, but fails, although he succeeds in making the deceased begin to move his head. It is emphasized that in this case the return of the soul to the body is only a deception committed with the help of demons. 
The descriptions of contacts with the dead were also influenced by the Christian practice of indulgences used by the Catholic Church, because thanks to indulgences the deceased can be freed from purgatory. This has given rise to a number of stories in which the dead try to exchange their services for absolution. The ghosts who appeared asked to make donations to the church and offer prayers for them. Around the 15th century, stories appeared in European folklore in which priests had special knowledge of how to summon the dead.
Middle Ages and Modern Times 
Despite the large number of references to magical books in medieval folklore, practically no real works devoted to necromancy have survived. Perhaps this was facilitated by the active struggle of the church against heresies. However, in later literature there are not only descriptions of the practices of communicating with the dead, but also attempts to classify them, although the authors turn to this topic very reluctantly. 
Agrippa in his Occult Philosophy (1531–1533), citing Greek descriptions, speaks of two types of necromancy: nekiomancy and skiamancy. Nekiomancy is the name given to the revival of corpses, “which is impossible to accomplish without blood.” Sciamancy is the calling of souls, which, however, cannot do without a corpse or its parts, “for such things contain spiritual power friendly to them [spirits]. Both types of necromancy are clearly disapproved of by the author, but the second seems less repulsive to him. 
Despite general disapproval, there are also descriptions of necromantic rituals performed. For example, in the English book “Ancient Funerary Monuments” (1631) by D. Weaver, it is described how Edward Kelly and Paul Warring, with the help of magic circles and spells, resurrect a young man who during his lifetime was himself involved in practicing magic. The spirit returns to the body and rises, taking a vertical position (very characteristic of Greek descriptions of the revival of corpses), after which it gives answers to the questions of the magicians.
Spiritualism 
With the report that the Fox sisters came into contact with a ghost through knocking in their house, spiritualism became widespread in the United States and then throughout the world. Quite quickly, movements arise whose followers build their lives in accordance with the recommendations of spirits, collect information about the afterlife and spiritual worlds. The issue of whether communication occurs with the dead or with harmful spirits is widely discussed. They are trying to photograph and explore the spirits. Materializations of various objects from the spiritual world become public shows. Table turning is practiced both in elite salons and in merchants' and even village houses. 
The popularity of spiritualism subsided only by the 1930s, however, even in our time there are circles and societies that actively practice its various types. We can observe echoes of the popularity of spiritualistic seances in various traditional fortune-telling, as well as in everyday and even children's magic: fortune-telling on a circle using a saucer, a ring or a needle suspended on a thread, calling a spirit using a saucer, etc.
Modernity 
By the end of the 20th century, necromancy again began to actively appear in the information space. It is addressed in fiction, music, films, and television shows. Playing on man's greatest fear, the fear of death, and having the image of a forbidden and dangerous art, necromancy at the same time acquires a certain romantic aura, attracting people's attention. Ancient practices are again becoming in demand among those interested in magic, esotericism, and the occult. Methods and recipes are exchanged on thematic resources on the Internet. Practitioners of necromancy share stories of successful experiences and discuss the results. Modern methods are a mixture of a large number of ancient sources and are actively supplemented. One ritual can combine elements of voodoo, the Mexican cult of Holy Death, Greek and Roman descriptions of rituals and methods of European magic. 
Necromancers quite openly offer and advertise their services. Not a single season of “Battle of Psychics” is complete without talking to the dead. For a certain amount of money, they can easily organize a walk through the cemeteries and conduct practical exercises.
A rather interesting modern trend in necromancy is “information transcommunication”, based on the “electronic voice phenomenon” discovered in 1959 by Swedish film producer Friedrich Jurgenson while recording birdsong. 
Using special equipment and technology, they are trying to scientifically prove the existence of the other world and the possibility of contact with its inhabitants, including the dead. In addition to audio recordings, the method of photographing spirits is actively used. For example, according to the “water method”, in order to see a spirit, you need to fill a vessel with water, preferably with a reflective bottom, set the water in motion and take several photographs (which refers us to Greek lecanomancy - fortune telling using a vessel with water). Subsequently, in these photographs, in random highlights, images of the “subtle world” and its inhabitants are looked for. 
Thus, one can see that necromancy has not gone into history, but continues to exist, develop and change. Practitioners of contacts with the dead are constantly in search of new technologies and methods. Like the people of ancient civilizations, our contemporaries are looking for an answer to the question of what awaits us beyond the inevitable line, which everyone will sooner or later cross. One can only hope that the assumptions of these researchers that life does not end with death will one day be confirmed.
